A Midsummer Night’s Dream

A Midsummer Night’s Dream The play A Midsummer Night’s Dream by Williams Shakespeare contains two distinctly different subplots within the lager structure of itself, which can be considered as a remarkable characteristic of the dramatic construction in general and of Shakespeare’s play in particular. Although Shakespeare borrows the themes, characters and stories from the history of the ancient Greece and Greek mythology, the play-within-a-play structure shows his creations and his own work. The play-within-a-play structure serves the function of recapping many important themes of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and allows Shakespeare to comment on the nature of art as well as criticize the acting of amateurs who perform and play on the stage yet do not understand what they actually do. The first play-within-a-play is a performance of Pyramus and Thisbe played by the laborers. It is similar to the main play in many aspects including commons in the story of the Athenian lovers and some of the overall themes. Pyramus and Thisbe face parental disapproval in the subplot just like the couple Lysander and Hermia do in the main plot. Despite its dramatic premise, the craftsmen play the love story of Pyramus and Thisbe in such a comical way that parodies the melodramatic Athenian lovers and gives the play a very joyful and comical ending. The role played by the darkness of night creates another similarity as it causes the romantic confusion in both plays. Pyramus, in the dark of the night, mistakenly believes that Thisbe has been killed by the lion when he sees her bloody mantle; he, thus, commits suicide because of this misinterpretation. Likewise, the mix-ups and meddling of the love fairy Puck cause the Athenian lovers face a miserable situation, which also happens at ni ght in the wood. Though the performance of the craftsmen makes the Athenian lovers’ story which involves strong emotions become comical and hilarious, the sub play serves as symbol for the larger play itself. It is explained while the lovers and Theseus and Hippolyta are mocking the ridiculous performance of the laborers, the audiences watching the lovers watch the craftsmen’s play are concurrently aware of the lovers’ own absurdity. Moreover, the play-within-a-play of the craftsmen suggests the strict requirements and the limit of the theatre. The workmen establish a very unlikely dramatic troupe. All of these characters appear comical because of their superficial characteristics and personal traits. They bumble, mispronounce words, and play the part of the fools. These untutored craftsmen are worried about their new dramatic roles for Pyramus, Thisbe, a wall, a lion, and a moon since none of them has had a previous acting experience. In spite of their preoccupation, the leader of the troupe Quince fails to help the actors correct their pronunciation and master important techniques for dramatic performance. During the rehearsal time, instead, he only tries to match the actors in hope that they will play out. On one hand, the play-within-a-play is offered as a comic interlude to display Shakespeare’s creativity. One the other hand, the sub play helps the audiences understand some of the overall themes in t he main play. That is, the play does not clearly explain how the craftsmen come together and how or by whom they are selected to be worthy to play. These characters and the sub play they perform exist to raise questions about the fitness for acting a certain role in a play. The issue of whom is worthy to putting on a play is also one of the concerns in the play A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Another aspect of this issue comprising who is responsible for bringing a play to the audiences or what thoughts and actions are proper in order to bring a play to stage should be also concerned. The conversations among the craftsmen-actors in which they argue whether they can bring an actual wall to stage and conclude that it is impossible to carry out demonstrate this point. Another play which can be considered as a second play-within-a-play is written by the Oberon, the King of all fairies. He creates a play in which the mortals are the performers. Marriage and reconciliation are the means for resolving all conflicts. In Oberon’s play, Helena gets her love, Lysander and Hermia stays together, and Titania has a lesson of obedience. As the workmen turn the tragic drama of the Athenian lovers into a comic farce by their awful performance, Oberon does the same when his fairy Puck accidentally put the love potion on eyes of the wrong Athenian man. This mistake causes the Athenian lovers experience an intensive misery, which also creates a comical situation. Similar to the first play-within-a-play, the second serves an important role to signify the larger play. In â€Å"What hempen home-spuns have we swagg’ring here?† Amateur Actors in A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Coventry Civic Play and Pageants, Clifford Davidson discusses the play-within-a-play structure and its purpose. He indicates that the play-within-a-play raises questions of imagination and stage reality (Davidson 87). Also, the author argues that Shakespeare uses this structure to parody the older dramatic styles of the public theaters fashionable when they tended to use the bombastic language and clumsily use the mythological subjects in their performance (Davidson 88). Above that, Davidson points out a very important issue that Shakespeare makes a comparison between the inadequate of the acting amateurs and the highly professional work conducted by his own company through the parody with the acting of the craftsmen in the subplot (88). According to the author, however, Shakespeare seems to have a negative view on the play and the players in many provincial cities and towns, which probably can cause severe misrepresentation about the quality of the amateur actors or companies (96). Davidson explains that by saying that â€Å"for the spectacles that cities like Coventry were able to mount were surely not so rough and â€Å"amateurish† as we might imagine† or â€Å"the quality of the production were surely much, much higher that Shakespeare’s play-within-a-play in A Midsummer Night’ Dream would seem to suggest† (96). The play-within-a-play is analyzed studied from a different point of view in the article The Act of Change in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Alan Bellringer explores the art of acting which he claims is â€Å"a valid part of the art of living† and its importance (213). He asserts that â€Å"the sub plot about the Athenian workmen’s underserved success in the amateur dramatic competition is thematically relevant and supportive† (Bellringer 213). On the other hand, the author sees acting and plays as a mean for normal, simple and blundering people like the character Bottom to â€Å"escape from their stereotyped tradesmen’s personalities through their imaginative art of drama, the world of ‘shadows’†. Through the play and acting, these craftsmen-actors can â€Å"briefly change their status in life† and â€Å"find fulfillment in their new-found importance as actors†. Regardless of â€Å"a mere matter of talented extroverti sm†, Bellringer compliments the performance of the craftsmen for their contribution to the success of the play even though it is intended as a ridiculous performance used to satirize the dramatic play of Pyramus and Thisbe and turn it into a comical play (215). He stresses the dynamism as the essential quality of this comedy and states that the purpose of play-within-a-play is about the â€Å"use of change† or the â€Å"amendment of life† (Bellringer 217). The play-within-a-play structure recaps the principles themes and ideas of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and has a significant contribution as a representation of the main play. The similarities in the sub play clarify the overall scheme. It also serves as a tool for Shakespeare’s creative work and a mean for the audiences to distinguish between the fiction and reality and realize the nature of art in theatre. Works Cited Bellringer, â€Å"The Act of Change in a Midsummer Night’s Dream†. English Studies 64.3 (1983): 201-17. International Bibliography of Theatre Dance. Wed. 10 Apr. 2014. Davidson, Clifford. â€Å"†What hempen home-spuns have we swagg’ring here?† Amateur Actors in a Midsummer Night’s Dream and the Coventry Civic Plays and Pageants†. Shakespeare Studies 19 (1987): 87-96. International Bibliography of Theatre Dance. Wed. 10 Apr. 2014.

VarPhen: Web Based Tool for Genotype-phenotype Association

VarPhen: Web Based Tool for Genotype-phenotype Association Elsayed Hegazy1, Mahmoud Elhefnawi1, 2 1Nile University, Giza, 12588, Egypt. 2National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt. Abstract Personalized medicine and the highly attention of next generation sequencing increase the demand of turning the genotype data into meaningful phenotype data. VarPhen is a web based tool used to do such thing. Its written in C# code its based on using RefSeq SNPs ID as a genotype to retrieve the relevant phenotype. VarPhen use ClinVar database as the source of clinical information and phenotypes relevant to specific variant. Introduction Next generation sequencing workflows and pipelines is now available for analyze all row data from quality control and mapping to variant calling but very few tools deals with vcf file to interpret to generate a meaningful reports with the common and rare diseases. One of the biggest servers regarding this issue is ClinVar (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/) which provides a freely available archive of the relationships among medically important variants and phenotypes. ClinVar is a huge database for reporting human variation, interpretations of the relationship of that variation to human health and the evidence supporting each interpretation. The database is tightly coupled with dbSNP and dbVar, which maintain information about the location of variation on human assemblies. ClinVar is also based on the phenotypic descriptions maintained in MedGen (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen). Each ClinVar record represents the submitter, the variation and the phenotype. The demand of vcf interpretation to valuable knowledge and phenotype increased day by day with the increasing of personal genome demand day by day. Here we will develop web based application that able to connect to CinVar and retrieve diseases associated with each variant listed in vcf file or sample. Availability and implementation VarPhen available for use on http://www.varphen.com as a web based tool written in ASP.Net with C# code behind using NCBI Database ClinVar API as a source of phenotypes. Review of literature Knowledge is more valuable when shared. By contributing these tools to the big spectrum which is the research community and healthcare as industry, we want to increase the quality and accuracy of genetic data analysis and interpretation available to all patients, physicians and researchers. OpenSNP is a Crowdsourced Web Resource for Personal Genomics. Its based on collecting users or patients vcf files from different sources like 23andme and decodeme plus the normal vcf file then detect variants and all relevant phenotypes. CLINVITAE is a clinically observation database uses the genetic variants aggregated from public sources. It is operated and made freely available by INVITAE which is a service like ClinVar. To make CLINVITAE as informative as possible, CLINVITAE aggregate the data from multiple public databases. CLINVITAE long term goal is to facilitate the search for clinically interpreted variants by creating a single unified resource for all interpretation results. CLINVITAE want physicians and researchers to save their time when comparing variants across multiple platforms and resources, and fully utilize the available data. GWAS Central or the Human Genome Variation database of Genotype-to-Phenotype information which is a database of summary level findings from genetic association studies, both large and small. GWAS actively gather datasets from public domain projects, and encourage direct data submission from the community improving the quality and accuracy of interpretation. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been successful at identifying some of the variation in traits attributable to genetics. The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) has begun aggregating results of association studies into a master GWAS catalog. Also, INTERPRETOME is a freely available and secure personal genome interpretation engine analyze vcf file into valuable knowledge for diseases from GWAS. Another database from the big company QIAGEN is The Human Gene Mutation Database represents a good trial to collect the known published gene lesions responsible for human inherited disease. Also, The Diagnostic Mutation Database (DMuDB) is a secure repository of clinical quality variant data collected from diagnostic genetics laboratories. Access to DMuDB is available by annual laboratory subscription, and must be for diagnostic purposes only. Many of databases and tools do such analysis or job but very few tools and databases are freely available or accessible by programming inside your application. Aim Developing web based application for transforming variants from vcf into knowledge by identifying which variant pathogenic and what is the associated diseases with that variant. Methods Technically this web based tool developed straight forward by using one of the most powerful web technologies which is ASP.Net web forms with C Sharp back end code. User asked to upload vcf file then file processing done by manipulating file to discard vcf header and start reading vcf data after the header. After that VarPhen only read the third column which represent the RefSeq of the variant as ClinVar input. Also VarPhen detect if the SNP is novel or not this improve the tool performance because if VarPhen found a novel variant so there no web request created to ClinVar but if the variant not novel so VarPhen create a web request to ClinVar asking for full listed information associated with this variant. After the web request processed ClinVar web response retrieved by VarPhen as XML file. VarPhen start to parse and analyze the resulted XML file. Manipulation of XML file target is extracting the phenotypes which associated with the variant of interest. VarPhen uses C# data structu re Queue which help also to improve the performance of the VarPhen web requests to ClinVar API because its based on the concept of First in first served first out. All phenotypes saved in another C# data structure which is the List data structure as a series of strings. After that its the turn of the presentation layer by populating ASP.Net grid view by the list of phenotypes as a table in the user interface. Figure 1- VarPhen flowchart Figure 1 shows the flowchart of VarPhen tool as it indicated its start with vcf file the check if variant is novel or not. No web request created in case of variant novel. API calling starts only with known variants to retrieve the XML file containing the phenotype data. Conclusion VarPhen is one of the easiest ways to know what phenotypes associated with a specific vcf file is. VarPhen target users with no programming experience. No registration required to use it. So simple by its user friendly interface. Renewable Energy in the UK: Government Role Renewable Energy in the UK: Government Role UK Renewable Energy: Electricity Generation and the governments role in driving CO2 reductions. Business Management EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This dissertation will mainly concentrate on UKs efforts to increase renewables contribution to electricity generation in the UK, which are part of a broader range of government strategies to reduce CO2 to meet global concerns and international obligations. It will also examine the forces driving the development of renewable energy market in the UK, as well as the overview of the governments role in driving CO2 reductions. The governments strategy on renewables includes several different elements, each attacking the problem from a different angle: mandatory regulation, information and education, technology RD support, and establishment of market-based mechanisms. The main findings presented will be based mainly on the literature review, expert opinions and future forecasts. A review of recent literature on this topic highlights the risk of failure due to failure of coordination among the many initiatives and government bodies involved, and the dangers of insufficient data in measuring progress. Also, they reveal the practical limitations of reliance on renewable to fulfill future electricity generation needs. The first part of the main analysis will provide an overview of the renewable energy market in the UK; it will include a summary of the current renewable energy policy and the main instruments which act as a driving forces for the development of renewables in the UK, as well as electricity market overview; second part would specifically concentrate on evaluation of whether the policies and targets set by government are efficient and achievable, the conclusion will summarize the findings and elaborate on future prospects for the renewable energy market in the UK. The available data indicates that the UK is already falling behind on its original plans for the uptake of renewable. However, government policy suggests growing awareness of the limitations of most renewables; and a consequent shift in focus away from renewables towards easier ‘bigger solutions such as nuclear power and carbon sequestration for coal-fired power stations. CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION A sustainable energy future is possible, but only if we act urgently and decisively to promote, develop and deploy a full mix of energy technologies We have the means, now we need the will†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Claude Mandil, International Energy Agency (IEA) In the 21st century, there has been a significant increase in energy demand due to factors such as population growth and changes in our lifestyle. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) today 86.5 % of total worldwide energy consumption is generated from fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil and coal; which are said to be non-renewable, and are the main cause for increase in green house gases and carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are the primary cause of global warming since 1950, and are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. As the worlds fossil fuels continue to diminish at an alarming rate, and global energy demand is forecasted to increase by 60% over the next 25 years (G8 Summit, 2005), alternative forms of energy must be developed that are economically cost effective, environmentally friendly, and easily harness ed. The development of renewable energy sources as a solution to these problems is expected to play a major role in the future energy supply and has developed a considerable interest within national government policies, environmental groups and the private sector. The term ‘renewable energy can be defined as â€Å"energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly† (Energy Statistics, 2004). The renewable energy sources are also covered by Europes climate change and energy policy. In March 2007, the European Council set a target of 20 percent of the total EU energy consumption to be generated from renewables by 2020. The policy also commits the EU Member States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent by 2020 and by 30 percent globally (The EC White Paper, 2007 (BERR)). According to BERR renewable energy is an integral part of the UK Governments longer-term aim of reducing CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050. The Government has set targets of reducing CO2 emissions by 20% by 2010 and 10% of electricity supply from renewable energy by 2010 (Digest of UK Energy Statistics, 2007). This raises the main questions addressed in this dissertation: Can the UK expect to meet and exceed the existing targets? What measure will be required to realize this potential and to encourage further investment in renewables? Despite the fact that renewables are seen by many policy-makers as a solution for improving energy security and saving the environment, there is still some uncertainty whether renewables could compete with conventional energy sources. Supportive policies and heavy investments are still needed to promote further development and deployment of renewables in energy markets. The establishment of new renewable energy technologies and their efficiency will depend on the costs and effectiveness. As a result, in order to promote renewable energy technology into the market there is a strong need to identify and analyse the policies which have a direct effect on technology and market development. 1.2 Renewable energy in the UK The United Kingdom is one of the worlds most globalized countries with the second largest economy in Europe and a population of 60 million. The UK currently contributes about 2 percent to global emissions, which, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, were estimated to be 38 billion tones carbon dioxide in 2004. UK energy industries are the main contributors to UK greenhouse gas emissions; according to statistics CO2 accounted for about 85 per cent of the UKs greenhouse gas emissions in 2006. In order to reduce emissions, the 2007 UK Energy White Paper sets out an objective to cut the UKs carbon emissions by 60% by 2050, with real progress by 2020. One way of achieving those targets would be by generating our energy from sources that produce very low or zero levels of greenhouse gases such as renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is â€Å"an integral part of the Governments strategy for reducing carbon emissions as renewable energy resources produce very li ttle carbon or other greenhouse gases†. (Commission, 2006) In 2006, about 75 percent of UK electricity was generated from fossil fuels, about 19 percent from nuclear power, and the remaining 4 percent from other renewables (Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES), 2007). The UK has one of the most suitable markets for the development of renewable sources of energy due to its geographic location; especially in wind, wave and tidal energy. However, the UK is also rich in fossil fuels and until the climate change issue became evident the successive governments have neglected renewable energy as an alternative source of our main energy supply. The UK Government initially started to show support for development of renewable energy sources in 1990, when renewables became a part of the so-called non-fossil fuel obligation (NFFO), originally set up to protect nuclear power. The issue of climate change and high levels of greenhouse gases has given a new drive to the development of renewable energy in the UK. As part of the Climate Change Programme, in June 2000 the UK government replaced NFFO by the Renewables Obligation (RO) in England and Wales with the main aims to encourage further the development of the UK renewable energy industry and to achieve a 10 percent share of renewables in electricity generation by 2010 (Environmental Policy Integration). Overall the renewable energy contribution is increasing. Total electricity generation from renewables in 2006 amounted to 18,133 GWh, an increase of 1,263 GWh (+7 ½ per cent) on 2005. The main contributors to this substantial increase were 1,072 GWh from onshore wind (+43 per cent), 248 GWh (+62 per cent) from offshore wind 134 GWh (+3 per cent) from landfill gas and 119 GWh (+12 per cent) from municipal solid waste combustion (UK Electricity Statistics,2007). One of the other main drivers for the development of alternative energy sources in the UK aside from climate change issues is the security of energy supply. The UK continues to heavily rely on the diminishing sources of fossil fuels, such as coal, gas and oil, which are increasingly sourced in geopolitically unreliable areas, such as Venezuela, Nigeria and Russia. According to the UK Energy Statistics 12 percent of the UKs gas supply came from gas imports (Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES), 2007). Therefore further development of alternative energy sources in the UK will reduce the amount of imported fossil fuels, as well as have a key role in resolving the climate change issue. In order to maintain the UKs energy supply and to achieve the carbon dioxide targets set in the Kyoto Protocol under which the UK has committed itself to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5 percent by 2012 (Sustainable Development Indicators in Your Pocket, 2007), as well as longer term goal set out in Energy White Paper to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 60 percent by 2050, it is vital to sustain further development of energy sources that produce low or zero levels of greenhouse gases, such as renewable energy. Figure 1, shows the Kyoto target and CO2 emissions, 1990 to 2012. Figure 1: Defra, BERR, â€Å"Sustainable Development Indicators in Your Pocket†, 2007 The Governments policies together with the White Paper made proposals to help increase the sources of renewable energy in the UK. The initial proposals set out in the Energy White Paper 2007, concentrate on three main areas: Electricity generation, by strengthening and modifying the Renewables Obligation, by reforming the planning system and by removing barriers to the growth of decentralised electricity generation; heat, by publishing a Biomass Strategy which identifies opportunities for increasing the use of renewables in energy production and by announcing further work to develop a more strategic approach to heat; and Transport, by requiring through The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Programme (RTFO) that an increasing proportion of our transport fuel should come from renewable sources. (Energy White Paper , 2007) According to the recent study undertaken by the Poyry Energy (Oxford) LTD, by 2020, renewable energy supply is expected to account for around 12 percent of EU total energy demand, where 59 percent of this volume will come from electricity generation, 32 percent from renewable heat and 9 percent from transport (Compliance costs for meeting the 20% renewable energy target in 2020., 2008) This paper will mainly concentrate on electricity generation through renewable energy sources, as consistency of electricity supply is fundamental to a robust UK economy, and renewables appear to be a suitable solution to improve security of electricity supply in the UK. The UK Government has set a target in order to promote the generation of electricity from renewable sources, by 2010, 10% of UK electricity should come from renewable sources (BERR, UK). The costs of electricity production from renewable energy sources presented in the figure below demonstrate that generation costs depend on the resource conditions in different countries or regions, particularly the EU Member States (Compliance costs for meeting the 20% renewable energy target in 2020, 2008). Therefore, in order to establish and sustain the competitiveness of renewable energy sources it is essential to analyse whether renewable energy technologies can compete with conventional sources. Figure 2: Electricity generation cost of renewable energy technologies (EU Commission 2005: 24, Support of electricity from RE sources). To support the new energy strategy there was a significant development to the UK Renewables Policy, the government has established key elements such as Renewables Obligation, which is driving force for the investment and consumer interest in renewables and it does so by obliging electricity suppliers to source a certain percentage of electricity from renewable sources. It has also launched strategies which allow UK to identify its main strengths and to develop world-leading capabilities in renewable energy sector. The main drivers of UK Renewable Energy Policy include: Renewable Obligation (RO) The RO is the main support scheme for renewable electricity projects in the UK. It places an obligation on UK suppliers of electricity to source an increasing proportion of their electricity from renewable sources. Suppliers are required to produce evidence of their compliance with this obligation to the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem). Evidence can be via certificates, referred to as Renewable Obligations Certificates (Renewable Obligation, 2008). UK renewable electricity has increased considerably since the introduction of RO. In 2006 electricity supplied from RO eligible sources stood at around 4% of the UKs total electricity, up from 1.8% in 2002 (Energy White Paper , 2007). Climate Change Levy (CCL) Exemption The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is â€Å"an environmental tax levied on the supply of certain taxable commodities, for example electricity, gas and coal, and charged by energy suppliers to final business consumers. Domestic, and most charitable, consumers do not pay CCL (Microgeneration and the Climate Change Levy, 2007). In order to support further development of renewables and to encourage consumers to use environmentally friendly sources of energy, renewable electricity supplied to non-domestic consumers is exempt from CCL. Research Development Programme The Government has constantly introduced programmes for renewable energy sources to remove obstacles which stood in the way of the development of renewables by furthering research and gathering information as well as assist industrial activities in the UK. Such programmes support the Renewable Obligation and the exempt renewable from Climate Change Levy. The programmes will also require cooperation with in the industry between the government and environmental organisations to maintain a steady approach to the growth of the renewable energy sources in the market. The programmes also set out plans to address the key issues together, with the concentration divided between technology development as well as non-technological issues, such as raising finance and obtaining planning permission. Each technology is set to be tested though several stages, which include assessment, RD, demonstration and market entry, full-scale industrialization and competition (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). Strategies for individual technology programmes also include this operation at the different stages of technology development. An exit strategy will also contribute to the competitiveness of the industry without creating a subsidy. Green trading can play a major part in electricity generation strategy to move to a system of renewables which operates strictly in the commercial market. The Government will carry out several actions together with the industry in order to encourage the development of renewable technologies in the UK, such actions include technological and environmental assessment in addition to resource assessment ;demonstration; the industrialisation of the market; removing legal and administrative obstacles; dealing with planning and development control issues; promoting research and marketing and education. The set priorities for the development of renewable technologies depend on their cost effectiveness and the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that can be reduced on different timescales. The priorities for the development of the renewable energy sources are set in time scales and include: Near Term includes most competitive renewable technologies in the UK. (Geothermal (heating and cooling),waste and some biomass residues, landfill gas, onshore wind, hydro, passive solar) Medium Term (by the year 2010) includes renewables that show maximum contribution by 2010, as well as assist to achieve the target of 10 percent.(Some biomass residues, energy crops, offshore wind) Longer Term (after 2010) includes renewable technologies that show longer term potential under the RD programme. (Fuel cells, photovoltaics, wave) Very Long Term (after 2050) includes renewable technologies which at this stage are only worth pursuing through the basic research. (Tidal barrage, hydrogen, ocean thermal currents) (UK Renewable Eneegy Policy , 2007) The Department of Trade and Industry will divide the budget allocated for the development of renewables according to the priorities table set above, particularly between the short, medium and longer term periods. The renewable technologies which are included in short and medium term will benefit from the market simulation under the Renewable Obligation. 1.3 main aim: The mixture of the issues introduced briefly in the first Chapter leads to the overall aim of investigating the governments role in achieving the targets set and through analyzing the market and the economic forecasts concluding whether these targets are achievable. Following chapter will review the existing literature that has investigated UK Renewable Market and Policies, critically evaluated the UK performance in renewables sector and consist of relevant data in order to set out the specific objectives for this study. United Kingdom has one of the most suitable potential markets for the development of renewable energy sources and could act as a leading example for the rest of the world, but the main question remains whether the UK will adopt the right approach to support the new technologies or is it just an ambitious set of targets based on wrong evaluations? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Global Perspective Today, the rising issue of climate change can be identified as â€Å"the biggest challenge facing humanity† (International Socialist Group, 2006). The UK Prime Minister has said climate change is â€Å"probably, long-term the single most important issue we face as a global community†. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that â€Å"global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions must be reduced at least 70 percent over the next 100 years to stabilize atmospheric CO2 concentrations† Considerable technical change will be needed to maintain growth in economy combined with large CO2 emission reductions at a cost as low as possible (Grubb, 1997), however the timeframe is not clear as many ways lead to certain CO2 stabilization levels which correspond to fixed increasing amounts of CO2 that can be released during the target year. Furthermore, economic arguments were raised favoring deferred emission abatement pathways (Wigley, 1996). There is a possibility that unexpected political objectives may trigger the need of short-term investments in long life capital stock, this leads to high costs due to the early retirement of long life capital stock units. Additionally, there is a high risk of only focusing on short-term emission reduction targets while creating technical change policies in relation to climate change which may result in a framework unable to achieve long-term future targets (Sande ´n, 2005). The increasing concerns of climate change has played one of the key roles in supporting the development of renewable energy sources, which are environmentally friendly and impose low or zero carbon emissions released into the atmosphere. In order to sustain the development of renewables it is essential to meet the stabilization scenario for carbon dioxide reduction and show that they can be competitive in cost with energy from other sources (Houghton, 2004, p.306). Houghton also stated that â€Å"under some circumstances renewable energy sources are already competitive in cost (e.g. local sources of energy), however where there is a direct competition with fossil fuel energy from oil and gas, many renewable energies at present compete only marginally†. Conversely, fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas have limited resources and â€Å"at some time between 2010-2020 the worlds supply of oil and gas will fall below the level required to meet international supply† (Oil and gas running out much faster than expected, 2003). As the result the costs of fossil fuels will increase which will unveil the opportunity for renewable energy sources to compete more easily (Houghton, 2004, p.306). A recent report from the UN environment programme said â€Å"investment in renewables such as wind, solar and biomass jumped 43% last year and may be about to increase by much more substantial amounts†. It also predicted that renewable energy sources could supply approximately a quarter of the worlds electricity by 2030. This fast development of renewable energy sources occurred as a result of rising demand for energy, security of energy supplies and the environmental and the dangers associated with the burning of fossil fuels (Sawin, 2004, p.5). The additional drivers for the rapid expansion of renewables incorporate the political support for renewable energy around the world, dramatic cost reductions and significant technology advances (Sawin, 2004, p.5). However, Karl Mallon in his book â€Å"Renewable Energy Policy and Politics: A Handbook for Decision-Making† has set out several challenges which can affect the development of renewable energy sources. Mallon mentioned that renewable projects usually have a long lifetime (20 years or more), but the investment and the main industrial activity occurs at the beginning. Therefore in order for investors to get a return on their investment, the developers on their end will try to make the projects as long as possible and try to establish capacity as early as possible in the scheme to yield the maximum return time (Mallon, 2007). As a result, generation schemes with targets that run less than 20 years will create a market with increasing activity and a massive industry growth for the first few years, and once a capacity meeting the long term target is in place downturn of activity will take place (Mallon, 2007). Mallon also stated that a â€Å"boom-bust† activity cycle is terr ibly inefficient form of industry development; if targets are used they must be dynamic to provide a constant but steady pull on industry. Another challenge which faces the development of renewables is the governments concentration on the economic side, namely where â€Å"the desire for economic certainty overrides the objectives of industry development or climate mitigation† (Mallon, 2007). Furthermore, according to Mallon, effective climate mitigation will require not less than 50-100 years transition to zero-emissions, therefore the schemes with deadlines ending 2010-2015 will make no contribution to solve in the climate change problem. Such schemes only provide economic certainty and tell investors that this is only a short term engagement rather than a long term, ignoring the fact that the prices of renewables and conventional energy change all the time. Finally, Mallon emphasized on the fact that â€Å"it is important to recognize that renewable energy policy consists not just of a driver but rather comprises a complete framework, ignoring or overlooking parts of that framework will undermine the entire vision†. 2.2 UK Perspective The energy policy of the United Kingdom fully supports targets for carbon dioxide emissions and is committed to achieve mandatory 60 percent cut in the UKs carbon emissions by 2050 (Carbon Abatement Technology for Fossil Fuels, 2005). The current interest in renewable energy in the UK reflects the global view in relation to the shortage of the existing energy sources and the necessity of finding alternative energy supplies to meet the future energy demand. The need for securing energy sources as an alternative to the current energy sources, mainly fossil fuels, lies in the uncertainty of such fuels which is diminishing over the years. This is particularly pertinent to the UK as it is estimated that by 2020 the UK could be importing 90% of its gas (which currently produces 41% of energy consumed) (DTI 2006). Additionally, the rising concerns over global warming and climate change also played a major role in ‘shedding the light on renewable energy sources. By 2050, global energy demand could double as populations rise and developing countries expand their economies (World Energy Organization, 2008). The UK Government started to tackle such concerns in 1999 when it introduces its first strategy â€Å"to help deliver a better quality of life through sustainable development† (Tony Blair, The UK Government Sustainable Development Strategy, March 2005). The Governments 2003 Energy White Paper sets a direction towards achieving low carbon economy, by attempting to resolve the issue on domestic basis first and to influence the major players in the global community to follow the same footsteps. The UK Government has committed itself to cut down greenhouse gas emissions, as mentioned above the government; according to its 2003 Energy White Paper, declared that its mission is to move to a low carbon economy and set out its target that by the year 2050 carbon dioxide emissions will be reduced by 60 percent in addition to the Kyoto Protocol target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5 percent by the year 2012, and the ambitious national goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent below the 1990 levels by the year 2010 (The UK Government Sustainable Development Strategy, 2005). However, the UKs CO2 emissions rose in the period 2002-04 (levels in 2004 showing a 1.5% increase over 2003) (DTI 2005a). These issues are arising at a time when large numbers of the UKs coal and nuclear-fired power stations are also reaching decommissioning age. This presents the UK with an opportunity to re-structure the fuels in its energy mix. According to the British Wind Energy (BWEA) the UK could face some challenges in meeting the renewable energy target of 20 percent by 2020 if it increases the amount of electricity generated under its Renewable Obligation, but puts on hold â€Å"financial penalties for utilities that help fund the program at 2015 levels† (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). The BWEA Chief Executive Maria McCaffery has commented on reform proposal: The RO has been highly successful in bringing forward the cheapest renewables: onshore wind, landfill gas and biomass co-firing. The Governments plan to band the RO could allow more technologies to share in this success, particularly offshore wind but this cannot be at the expense of onshore winds current strong growth. Accommodating the more expensive technologies whilst trying to get to a 20% target in 2020 using the same amount of money as a 15% goal is like trying to extract a quart from a pint pot. It just doesnt add up. E ssentially, said BWEA, â€Å"the government is attempting to get a third more renewable power with a mix that includes significant quantities of technologies that are not economic under the current system for the same amount of money† (Challenges Ahead for UK Renewable Energy Program, 2007). John Loughhead, the Executive Director of the  UK Energy Research Centre  (UKERC)  said: Achieving these targets will be challenging, since the UK currently obtains less that 2% of its energy from renewable sources. It is probable that electricity production will have to bear a disproportionate share and initial estimates from the European Commission and others suggest it may need to produce about 40% of all electricity from renewable sources by 2020 if the overall targets are to be met. Additionally, the recent study â€Å"Renewable electricity generation technologies†, January 2008, issued by Institute of Physics (IOP) has outlined further barriers to the development of renewable energy sources. According to the study, one of the main challenges facing the renewables is â€Å"the liberalisation of the UK energy market, the current price of electricity is so low that it is not economically viable to develop and introduce new generating technologies to the market, unless they can be developed at a low cost and can provide electricity predictably at competitive wholesale prices† (Renewable electricity generation technologies, 2008) 2.3 UK Renewable Policy Targets Karl Mannon regards the renewable energy policy as a framework rather a single driver and emphasized that all the parts forming this framework must operate jointly in order for us to achieve the highest benefit of this policy (Mannon, 2007). As to the influence such policies may have on the market, Mannon added that there are unknown factors in these policies which can affect the size of the market, the prices paid for renewable energy or the duration of the scheme. Some of the factors which control the growth of the market include: the level of support, the duration of support eligibility, the duration of support schemes and the quantity of renewables required under the scheme. (Mannon, 2007, p.37) However, Adrian Smith in his report â€Å"Multi-level governance: Towards an analysis of renewable energy governance in the English regions†, December 2006, has identified challenges for governance in promotion of renewable energy systems. Smith, 2006, has outlined that â€Å"governments policy objective of transforming existing energy systems into ones with greater renewable energy content requires coordinated efforts and changes amongst many different actors, institutions and artifacts. Renewable energy systems are complex, and their construction is far from straightforward. It is consequently difficult to direct them into being exclusively through hierarchical government measures like planning† (Smith, 2006). John Sauven, the Executive Director of Greenpeace UK, in his article â€Å"Its rip-off Britain, even when it comes to climate change†, October 2007, has stated that the targets set by Renewable Obligation which were set for electricity suppliers have all been missed and â€Å"the governments own projections show that the final target of just 15 percent in 2015 will also be missed†. Additionally, Dave Toke, in his academic paper, has concluded that â€Å"RO is relatively inflexible in that it effectively sets a single level of payments for all renewable-energy generators, which is relatively generous for onshore wind power, barely sufficient (even with capital grant supplements) for offshore wind power, and not enough for much else. The target of supplying 10% of UK electricity from renewables by 2010 is not likely to be achieved some 7% is a more likely level† (Toke, 2005). Toke, D., also noted that â€Å"the more ambitious the targets are, the more expensive w ill be the incentives (or penalties) needed to ensure compliance with these targets†. The analysis of renewable energy policy carried out by the Carbon Trust, â€Å"Policy Framework for renewables†, July 2006, states that â€Å"overall, the existing renewable energy policy suffers from inefficiencies, resulting in a unit cost of renewable energy to consumers that is higher than necessary given the current technology cost†, as well as â€Å"given the renewable and carbon reduction targets and the 2015 gap, diversity of investment in renewable energy is needed†. The UK policies are not created to determine what a sustainable energy system i

services marketing Essay -- essays research papers

Services Marketing A service is the action of doing something for someone or something. It is largely intangible (i.e. not material). A product is tangible (i.e. material) since you can touch it and own it. A service tends to be an experience that is consumed at the point where it is purchased, and cannot be owned since is quickly perishes. A person could go to a cafà © one day and have excellent service, and then return the next day and have a poor experience. So often marketers talk about the nature of a service as: Inseparable - from the point where it is consumed, and from the provider of the service. For example, you cannot take a live theatre performance home to consume it ( a DVD of the same performance would be a product, not a service) Intangible - and cannot have a real, physical presence as does a product. For example, motor insurance may have a certificate, but the financial service itself cannot be touched i.e. it is intangible. Perishable - in that once it has occurred it cannot be repeated in exactly the same way. For example, once a 100 metres Olympic final has been run, there will be not other for 4 more years, and even then it will be staged in a different place with many different finalists. Variability - since the human involvement of service provision means that no two services will be completely identical. For example, returning to the same garage time and time again for a service on your car might see different levels of customer satisfaction, or speediness of work. Right of ownership - is not taken to the service, since you merely experience it. For example, an engineer may service your air-conditioning, but you do not own the service, the engineer or his equipment. You cannot sell it on once it has been consumed, and do not take ownership of it. Western economies have seen deterioration in their traditional manufacturing industries, and a growth in their service economies. Therefore the marketing mix has seen an extension and adaptation into the extended marketing mix for services, also known as the 7P's – physical evidence, process and people. Physical evidence is the material part of a service. Strictly speaking there are no physical attributes to a service, so a consumer tends to rely on material cues. There are many examples of physical evidence, including some of the following:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Packaging  · ... ... Service Many products, services and experiences are supported by customer services teams. Customer services provided expertise (e.g. on the selection of financial services), technical support(e.g. offering advice on IT and software) and coordinate the customer interface (e.g. controlling service engineers, or communicating with a salesman). The disposition and attitude of such people is vitally important to a company. The way in which a complaint is handled can mean the difference between retaining or losing a customer, or improving or ruining a company's reputation. Today, customer service can be face-to-face, over the telephone or using the Internet. People tend to buy from people that they like, and so effective customer service is vital. Customer services can add value by offering customers technical support and expertise and advice. Services Characteristics - the features of services that distinguish them from tangible products; these are intangibility, variability, inseparability and perishability. See Inseparability; Intangibility; Perishability; Variability. Services Marketing - the marketing of intangible products, such as hairdressing, cleaning, insurance and travel.

The Atkins Diet: Low-Carb Mania :: Health Nutrition Diet Exercise Essays

The Atkins Diet: Low-Carb Mania   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dr. Robert Atkins ignited the dieting world when he introduced the word â€Å"low carb mania,† which is now known as the Atkins diet. The diet claims that you can lose weight on a high fat, high protein diet. The program works on four main principles which are to limit the amount of consumption of simple carbohydrates, increase the intake of protein, to exercise on a daily basis, and to maintain proper food consumption. The new diet revolution has stirred up a controversial debate on whether the higher fat, lower carb diet is healthy in the long run for diet consumers. Some people say that it is not a healthy diet and that it includes too much fat, while others say it is the only weight loss diet that has finally helped them to take off a significant amount of weight.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The diet became an instant craze since it has been proven that many Americans eat excessive amounts of simple carbohydrates such as rice, alcohol, sugar, white flour, and sugar. As a result of the surge in obesity and high calorie intakes, the Atkins diet aims to eliminate the simple carbohydrate consumption by replacing it with high fat, high animal protein foods such as bacon, sausage, butter, steak, eggs, and brie. These rich foods are allowed as part of the diet since it claims that you will lose weight fast while just following the routine. Although the diet may cause one to lose weight, critics have found the diet to have considerable drawbacks. The Atkins diet restriction on carbohydrates is not very healthy since complex carbohydrates such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are found to contain essential nutrients and rich in fiber. Fiber is known to slow the absorption of food, which prevents blood glucose to rise and reduce insulin surges, therefore decreasing desire to eat. Critics have found that simple carbohydrates should be substituted for complex carbohydrates instead of eliminating carbohydrates from the diet completely. Complex carbohydrates and whole foods are rich in photochemical, bioflavonoid, carotenoids, and other substances that may reduce the risk of many chronic diseases.

Christianity in Crime and Punishment Essay -- essays papers

Christianity in Crime and Punishment While reading Crime and Punishment, by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the notion that it is a novel about Christianity seems absurd at first. Its central story focuses on revenge, murder and punishment – ideals contrary to Christian beliefs. Although the book may appear to be non-Christian, there were many instances where faith, suffering and redemption were present. These occasions show that the underlying theme of Crime and Punishment is one of Christianity. The references to icons, Lazarus, New Jerusalem and the constant presence of suffering prove that the novel has biblical connotation. In the beginning of the novel, when Raskolnikov goes to the pawnbroker to pawn his father’s watch, Dostoevsky describes Alyona’s apartment. â€Å"The furniture, all very old an of yellow wood, consisted of a sofa†¦ In the corner a light was burning before a small icon.† Even from the very first chapter, Dostoevsky made a reference to a Christian image. An ‘icon’ is a picture or representation of a saint or other Christian figures. I believe that the author did this to make it evident right from the start that Crime and Punishment is irrevocably a novel about God. An icon reappears every now and then in the rest of the book to reiterate that God will always be around, watching and guiding over everyone. Also near the beginning of the story, the man Raskolnikov met at the bar, Marmeledov, declared the first primary Christian message in the novel. Ironic as it was, being that he was drunk, he cried out, â€Å"Crucify me oh judge†¦ He is the One... He will forgive my Sonya.† The idea that God could forgive is a very strong belief throughout the novel and this concept is one that is vital to the transformation of ... ...tly, she knows that he loves her and that they will have a future together. â€Å"†¦ The dawn of a new future, a perfect resurrection into a new life...† The Lazarus image recurs. Love has raised them from the dead. This love is the love of God that has shown through their suffering. By loving Sonya, I believe Raskolnikov is ready to love God. The seven years that remain on his sentence have a religious significance too, for seven is the number of creation, as well. In closure, the Christian content in Crime and Punishment is definitely evident and teaches many morals to the reader. The story has a message of faith and enlightens those who do not have any. In reading this novel, I came to realize that â€Å"you must accept suffering and redeem yourself by it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  For if you do not, then you will being like Raskolnikov and suffer the punishments for dong the crime. Christianity in Crime and Punishment Essay -- essays papers Christianity in Crime and Punishment While reading Crime and Punishment, by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the notion that it is a novel about Christianity seems absurd at first. Its central story focuses on revenge, murder and punishment – ideals contrary to Christian beliefs. Although the book may appear to be non-Christian, there were many instances where faith, suffering and redemption were present. These occasions show that the underlying theme of Crime and Punishment is one of Christianity. The references to icons, Lazarus, New Jerusalem and the constant presence of suffering prove that the novel has biblical connotation. In the beginning of the novel, when Raskolnikov goes to the pawnbroker to pawn his father’s watch, Dostoevsky describes Alyona’s apartment. â€Å"The furniture, all very old an of yellow wood, consisted of a sofa†¦ In the corner a light was burning before a small icon.† Even from the very first chapter, Dostoevsky made a reference to a Christian image. An ‘icon’ is a picture or representation of a saint or other Christian figures. I believe that the author did this to make it evident right from the start that Crime and Punishment is irrevocably a novel about God. An icon reappears every now and then in the rest of the book to reiterate that God will always be around, watching and guiding over everyone. Also near the beginning of the story, the man Raskolnikov met at the bar, Marmeledov, declared the first primary Christian message in the novel. Ironic as it was, being that he was drunk, he cried out, â€Å"Crucify me oh judge†¦ He is the One... He will forgive my Sonya.† The idea that God could forgive is a very strong belief throughout the novel and this concept is one that is vital to the transformation of ... ...tly, she knows that he loves her and that they will have a future together. â€Å"†¦ The dawn of a new future, a perfect resurrection into a new life...† The Lazarus image recurs. Love has raised them from the dead. This love is the love of God that has shown through their suffering. By loving Sonya, I believe Raskolnikov is ready to love God. The seven years that remain on his sentence have a religious significance too, for seven is the number of creation, as well. In closure, the Christian content in Crime and Punishment is definitely evident and teaches many morals to the reader. The story has a message of faith and enlightens those who do not have any. In reading this novel, I came to realize that â€Å"you must accept suffering and redeem yourself by it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  For if you do not, then you will being like Raskolnikov and suffer the punishments for dong the crime.

Archaisms and historisms Essay

Introduction We often hear about words being added to dictionaries as they become part of everyday vernacular, but have you ever heard about any words that get removed? Some people argue that if a word has existed at some point in time then it merits a place in the dictionary. After all, who knows when someone may come across it in an old text and need to look up the definition? Others say that dictionaries should reflect the language that we use here and now, and so those words which have become obsolete in everyday language should no longer have a place in the dictionary. Language and culture are constantly changing, so how do we keep up with these changes without losing our past? The article is intended to go back in time and to disclose archaisms in the English language. Different groups of archaisms, the difference between archaisms and historisms, periods of their development, stylistic features, semantic groups and other problems got their reflection in the article. Different viewpoints of scientists, the aim of using archaisms in belles-lettres and their classification are presented and illustrated by the examples in Russian and English. 1. How do words in everyday language become obsolete? The vocabulary of a language never remains stable. There are constant changes in the semantic structure of any language. Words appear, undergo a number of phonetic and semantic changes and finally pass completely out of use. The disappearance of various things, phenomena, etc. causes either com ­plete disappearance of their names or turns them into  «representatives » of a previous epoch. Many words become obsolete in ordinary language, but remain in poetry, in books conforming to a definite style, in oratory, etc. A great many archa ­isms survive in English dialects. Thus the fate of obsolete words may be different. We distinguish two groups of obsolete words: archaisms proper and historical terms (historisms). Before turning to them it is of primary importance to distinguish the terms †archaic† and †obsolete†. The terms â€Å"archaic† and â€Å"obsolete† are used more or less indiscriminately by some authors. The meaning of these temporal labels, however, can be somewhat different among dictionaries. The label archaic is  used for words that were once common but are now rare. Archaic implies having the character or characteristics of a much earlier time. Obsolete indicates that a term is no longer in active use, except, for example, in literary quotation. Obsolete may apply to a word regarded as no longer acceptable or useful even though it is still in existence. In the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin [4th ed.], 2004) the archaic label is described this way: â€Å"This label is applied to words and senses that were once common but are now rare, though they may be familiar because of their occurrence in certain contexts, such as the literature of an earlier time. Specifically, this label is attached to entry words and senses for which there is only sporadic evidence in print after 1755.† The AHD describes the obsolete label thus: â€Å"The label obsolete is used with entry words and senses no longer in active use, except, for example, in literary quotations. Specifically, this label is attached to entry words and senses for which there is little or no printed evidence since 1755.† In Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 2003), the Explanatory Notes say, â€Å"The temporal label obs for obsolete means that there is no evidence of use since 1755. The label obs is a comment on the word being defined. When a thing, as distinguished from the word used to designate it, is obsolete, appropriate orientation is usually given in the definition. The temporal label archaic means that a word or sense once in common use is found today only sporadically or in special contexts.† Random House Dictionary defines an obsolete word as one â€Å"no longer in use, esp. out of use for at least a century†, whereas an archaism is referred to as â€Å"current in an earlier time but rare in present usage†. However, it should be pointed out that the borderline between â€Å"obsolete† and â€Å"archaic† is vague and uncertain, and in many cases it is difficult to decide to which of the groups this or that word belongs. 2. Archaisms proper: etymology, main features and usage. In language, an archaism (from the Ancient Greek: á ¼â‚¬Ã Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ±ÃÅ ÃŽ ºÃÅ'Ï‚, archaà ¯kà ³s, ‘old-fashioned, antiquated’, ultimately á ¼â‚¬Ã Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ±Ã¡ ¿â€"ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š, archaà ®os, ‘from the beginning, ancient’) is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no  longer current. This can either be done deliberately (to achieve a specific effect) or as part of a specific jargon (for example in law) or formula (for example in religious contexts). Many nursery rhymes contain archaisms. Archaic elements that occur only in certain fixed expressions (for example ‘be that as it may’) are not considered to be archaisms. Archaisms proper are obsolete words denoting real things and phenom ­ena, but the words themselves are no longer found in ordinary English: they were substituted by others, obsolete words becoming their stylistic synonyms. These words are moribund, already partly or fully out of circulation, rejected by the living l anguage. There are three stages in the aging processes of words: they become rarely used; they are in the stage of gradually passing out from use; these are the morphological forms belonging to the earlier stage of the development of the language [thee, thou], corresponding verbal endings [thou makest], many French borrowings [palfreu] they have already gone completely out of use and are still recognized by the English-speaking people. [me thinks = it seems to me, nay = no]. archaic words proper is no longer recognizable in modern English; such words were in use during the Old English period, are earlier dropped out of the language or have changed in the appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable [losso =lazy fellow]. While some words become obsolete from everyday language, others still exist but their meaning has changed over time. Words like fun fur have remained in use as their meanings have been adapted to current circumstances. Fun fur used to refer to cheap animal fur that had been dyed in several colors until the 1960s. Today it refers to synthetic fur. 3. Types of archaisms: lexical and grammatical archaisms and their peculiarities Generally we distinguish lexical and grammatical archaisms.  Grammatical archa ­isms are forms of words which went out of use with the development of the grammar system of the English language: -th – suffix of the 3rd person sing., Present Indef. Tense, e.g. hath, doth, speaketh; -st – 2nd person – dost, hast, speakest; art – 2nd person of the verb  «to be » pl.; thou, thee, thy, thine – pronouns; ye – plural, 2nd person. Lexical archaisms. Poetry is especially rich in archaisms. Words that are too well known and too often used do not call up such vivid images as words less familiar. This is one of the reasons which impel poets to use archaic words. They are  «new » just on account of their being old, and yet they are not utterly unknown to be unintelligible. The following are some of the most common lexical archaisms used in poetry: billow – Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¹Ã ½Ã °; save – Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¾Ã ¼Ã µ; plain – Ð ¶Ã °Ã »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã' ; behold – Ð ²Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ'‚Ã'Å'; yon (yonder) – Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‚; eke – Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¶Ã µ; brow – Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾; foe – Ð ²Ã'€Ð °Ã ³; ere – Ð ´Ã ¾; steed – Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã'Å'; morn – Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾; belike – Ð ²Ã µÃ'€Ð ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã ¾; damsel – Ð ´Ã µÃ ²Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ºÃ °; woe – rope; oft, oft-times – Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾; mere â⠂¬â€œ Ð ¾Ã ·Ã µÃ'€Ð ¾, Ð ¿Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ´; hearken – Ã' Ã »Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ °Ã'‚Ã'Å'; albeit – Ã'…Ð ¾Ã'‚Ã' , etc. Their last refuge is in historical novels (whose authors used them to create a particular period atmosphere) and, of course, in poetry which is rather conservative in its choice of words. So their main function is to sustain a special evaluated atmosphere of poetry. They form an insignificant layer of special literary vocabulary. On the whole they are detached from the common literary vocabulary. Thus, the use of archaic words is a stylistic device. In historical novels they create an atmosphere of the past. In the depiction of events of the present they assume the function of a stylistic device proper. The stylistic functions of the archaic words are based on the temporary perception of the event. Even when used in a terminological aspect they create a special atmosphere in the utterance. They form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. 1. They are used by authors to produce an elevated (Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ²Ã'‹Ã'ˆ) effect. 2. They have a tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and assume the quality of terms denoting certain notions and calling forth poetic diction. Closely associated with archaisms are poetical words. The use of poetic words doesn’t as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry, but it substitutes its expressiveness. The common way of creating such words is compounding  [young-eyed, rosy-fingered]. Poetic words and expressions are understandable to a limited number of readers. In modern poetry words are often used in strange combinations [the sound of shame]. Poetic words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function. They can also be found in other styles, e.g. in journalistic style: proceed (go), the welkin (the sky), the vale (the valley), the devouring element (the fire). Archaic words – yclept (to call, name), quoth (to speak), eftsoons (again soon after) are good examples. They evoke emotive meaning. They color the utterance with the certain air of loftiness (elevation). But generally fail to produce a general feeling of delight. They are taken hacked, too outdate. These words are often used by modern ballet mangers (Ã' Ã ¾Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã ¸ Ð ±Ã °Ã »Ã »Ã °Ã ´). Some poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. This poetical language is often called poetical jargon. â€Å"Alas! They had been friends in youth; But whispering tongues can poison truth And constancy lives in realms above; And life is thorny; and youth is vain; And to be wroth with one we love, Doth work like madness in the brain†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Coleridge) Thou and thy, aye (â€Å"yes†) and nay (â€Å"no†) are certainly archaic and long since rejected by common usage, yet poets use them even today. (We also find the same four words and many other archaisms among dialectisms, which is quite natural, as dialects are also conservative and retain archaic words and structures). Numerous archaisms can be found in Shakespeare, but it should be taken into consideration that what appear to us today as archaisms in the works of Shakespeare, are in fact examples of everyday language of Shakespeare’s time. There are several such archaisms in Viola’s speech from Twelfth Night: â€Å"There is a fair behavior in thee, Captain, And though that nature with a beauteous wall Doth oft close in pollution, yet of thee I will believe thou hast a mind that suits With this thy fair and outward character. I prithee — and I’ll pay thee bounteously — Conceal me what I am, and be my aid For such disguise as haply shall become The form of my intent†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Act 1, Sc. 2) 32 Further examples of archaisms are: morn (for morning), eve (for evening), moon (for month), damsel (for girl), errant (for wandering, e.g. errant knights), etc. Sometimes, an archaic word may undergo a sudden revival. So, the formerly archaic kin (for relatives; one’s family) is now current in American usage. Archaisms are also most frequently encountered in poetry, law, science, technology, geography and ritual writing and speech. Their deliberate use can be subdivided into literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing; and lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use. Archaisms are kept alive by these ritual and literary uses and by the study of older literature. Should they remain recognized, they can be revived, as the word anent was in this past century. Because they are things of continual discovery and re-invention, scie nce and technology have historically generated forms of speech and writing which have dated and fallen into disuse relatively quickly. However the emotional associations of certain words (for example: ‘Wireless’ rather than ‘Radio’ for a generation of British citizens who lived through the second world war) have kept them alive even though the older word is clearly an archaism. A similar desire to evoke a former age means that archaic place names are frequently used in circumstances where doing so conveys a political or emotional subtext, or when the official new name is not recognized by all (for example: ‘Persia’ rather than ‘Iran’, ‘Bombay’ rather than ‘Mumbai’, ‘Madras’ rather than ‘Chennai’). So, a restaurant seeking to conjure up historic associations might prefer to call itself Old Bombay or refer to Persian cuisine in preference to using the newer place name. A notable contemporary example is the name of the airline Cathay Pacific, which uses the archaic Cathay (â€Å"China†). Archaisms are frequently misunderstood, leading to changes in usage. One example is found in the phrase â€Å"the odd man out†, which originally came from the phrase â€Å"to find the odd man out†, where the verb â€Å"to find out† has been split by its object â€Å"the odd man†, meaning the item which does not fit. The compound adverbs and prepositions found in the writing of lawyers (e.g. heretofore, hereunto, thereof) are examples of archaisms as a form of jargon. Some phraseologies, especially in religious contexts, retain archaic elements that are not used in ordinary speech in any other context: â€Å"With this ring I thee wed.† Archaisms are also used in the dialogue of historical novels in order to evoke the flavour of the period. Some may count as inherently funny words and are used for humorous effect. 4. Historims: main features and classification Historisms are names of things and phenomena which passed out of use with the development of social, economical, cultural life of society but which retain historical importance. Unlike archaisms, historical terms have no syno ­nyms in Modern English: they are only names of things and notions which refer to the past of the English people. The sphere of these words is restricted with scientific literature or with books and novels dealing with certain historical periods. There are lots of his ­torisms in the historical novels of W.Scott and other English authors, e.g.: Historisms are very numerous as names for social relations, institutions and objects of material culture of the past. The names of ancient transport means, ancient clothes, weapons, musical instruments can offer many examples. Before the appearance of motor-cars many different types of horse-drawn carriages were in use. The names of some of them are: brougham, berlin, calash, diligence, fly, gig, hansom, landeau, phae ton, etc. It is interesting to mention specially the romantically metaphoric prairie schooner ‘a canvas-covered wagon used by pioneers crossing the North American prairies’. There are still many sailing ships in use, and schooner in the meaning of ‘a sea-going vessel’ is not an historism, but a prairie schooner is. Many types of sailing craft belong to the past as caravels or galleons, so their names are historisms too. The history of costume forms an interesting topic by itself. It is reflected in the history of corresponding terms. The corresponding glossaries may be very  long. Only very few examples can be mentioned here. In W. Shakespeare’s plays, for instance, doublets are often mentioned. A doublet is a close-fitting jacket with or without sleeves worn by men in the 15th-17th centuries. It is interesting to note that descriptions of ancient garments given in dictionaries often include their social functions in this or that period. Thus, a tabard of the 15th century was a short surcoat open at the sides and with short sleeves, worn by a knight over his armour and emblazoned on the front, back and sides with his armorial bearin gs. Not all historisms refer to such distant periods. Thus, bloomers — an outfit designed for women in mid-nineteenth century. It consisted of Turkish-style trousers gathered at the ankles and worn by women as â€Å"a rational dress†. It was introduced by Mrs Bloomer, editor and social reformer, as a contribution to woman rights movement. Somewhat later bloomers were worn by girls and women for games and cycling, but then they became shorter and reached only to the knee. A great many historisms denoting various types of weapons occur in historical novels, e. g. a battering ram ‘an ancient machine for breaking walls’; a blunderbuss ‘an old type of gun with a wide muzzle’; breastplate ‘a piece of metal armour worn by knights over the chest to protect it in battle’; a crossbow ‘a medieval weapon consisting of a bow fixed across a wooden stock’. Many words belonging to this semantic field remain in the vocabulary in some figurative meaning, e. g. arrow, shield, sword, vizor, etc. Thus we can distinguish the following types of historisms: 1. words of social position: yeomen – Ð ¹Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã µÃ ½, knight – Ã'€Ã'‹Ã'†Ð °Ã'€Ã'Å', scribe – Ð ¿Ã ¸Ã' Ã µÃ'†; 2. names of arms and words connected with war: battle ax – Ð ±Ã ¾Ã µÃ ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã‚ ­ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¸Ã º, musket – Ð ¼Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ºÃ µÃ'‚, visor – Ð ·Ã °Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã »Ã ¾, warrior – Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¸Ã ½, sword – Ð ¼Ã µÃ'‡, gauntlet – Ã'€Ã'‹Ã'†Ð °Ã'€Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã'  Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ã'‡Ð °Ã'‚Ð ºÃ ° = Ð »Ã °Ã'‚Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ °Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'†Ð °, archer – Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã º Ð ¸Ã · Ð »Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ °, spear – Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ¿Ã'Å'Ð µ; 3. types of vessels: galley – Ð ³Ã °Ã »Ã µÃ'€Ð °, frigate – Ã'„Ã'€Ð µÃ ³Ã °Ã'‚, caravel – Ð ºÃ °Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã µÃ »Ã »Ã °; 4. types of carts which went out of use: brougham – Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ºÃ °Ã'€Ð µÃ'‚Ð °, chaise – Ã'„Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ½, Ð »Ã µÃ ³Ã ºÃ °Ã'  Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ºÃ ° Ã'  Ð ¾Ã'‚Ð ºÃ'€Ã'‹Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ¼ Ð ²Ã µÃ'€Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ¼, hansom – Ð ´Ã ²Ã'Æ'Ã'…Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¿Ã °Ã ¶, Ð ³Ã ´Ã µ Ã' Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ºÃ'Æ'Ã'‡Ð µÃ'€Ð ° Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã µÃ ½Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ·Ã °Ã ´Ã ¸ Ð ¸ Ð ½Ã µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã'Å' ­ Ð ºÃ ¾ Ð ²Ã'‹Ã'ˆÐ µ Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚ Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ã' Ã µÃ ´Ã ¾Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ², coach – Ð ºÃ °Ã'€Ð µÃ'‚Ð ° (Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'‡Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã' ); 5. names of old musical instruments: lute – Ð »Ã'ŽÃ'‚Ð ½Ã' , lyre – Ð »Ã ¸Ã'€Ð °. So the number of  historisms which reflect the social life and culture of the past is very great. Conclusion Though many of the words discussed above are rather old-fashioned, outdate and are rarely used in modern society, they still have a unique place in the depositary of English word-stock. Thus they can be found in bigger dictionaries as they might be relevant to specific fields. Words and their meanings are always bound to specific contexts and times in which their meaning makes sense. Anyone learning a language needs to be aware of how words are used today and historically in order to correctly interpret and understand their meaning. So one should always keep up with the constant changes in language to make sure that their skills are the most appropriate for today’s modern world. Methodical literature 1. Ð Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ½Ã ° Г. Б., Ð Ã'„Ð °Ã ½Ã °Ã' Ã'Å'Ð µÃ ²Ã ° О. Ð’., ÐÅ"Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ° Ð . Ð . ЛÐ µÃ ºÃ' Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¸Ã'  Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã' Ã ·Ã'‹Ð ºÃ °: Ð £Ã'‡Ð µÃ ±. Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã' Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ². ДÃ'€Ð ¾Ã'„Ð °, 1999 2. ГÐ ¸Ã ½Ã ·Ã ±Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ³, Ð ¡. Ð ¡. Ð ¥Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ ºÃ µÃ »Ã'Å', Г. Ð ®. КÐ ½Ã' Ã ·Ã µÃ ²Ã ° Ð ¸ Ð . Ð . Ð ¡Ã °Ã ½Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ½. ЛÐ µÃ ºÃ' Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¸Ã'  Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã' Ã ·Ã'‹Ð ºÃ °: Ð £Ã'‡Ð µÃ ±Ã ½Ã ¸Ã º Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ð ¸Ã ½-Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ² Ð ¸ Ã'„Ð °Ã º. Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€. Ã' Ã ·. Ð’Ã'‹Ã' Ã'ˆ. Ã'ˆÐ ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã °, 1979. 3. Ð Ã'€Ð ½Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ´ И. Ð’. ЛÐ µÃ ºÃ' Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¸Ã'  Ã' Ã ¾Ã ²Ã'€Ð µÃ ¼Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã' Ã ·Ã'‹Ð ºÃ °: Ð £Ã'‡Ð µÃ ±. Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ð ¸Ã ½-Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ² Ð ¸ Ã'„Ð °Ã º. Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€. Ã' Ã ·. ÐÅ".: Ð’Ã'‹Ã' Ã'ˆ. Ã'ˆÐ º., 1986. — 295 Ã' ., Ð ¸Ã ». — Ð Ã ° Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã ». Ã' Ã ·. Internet sources http://ru.scribd.com/doc/33264944/English-Lexicology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaism http://dictionary.reference.com/help/faq/language/d25.html http://window.edu.ru/library/pdf2txt/731/67731/41095/page6 http://matadornetwork.com/abroad/20-obsolete-english-words-that-should-make-a-comeback/2/

Analysis Is Euro Zone An Optimal Currency Area Economics Essay

Does euro zone tantrum what is described in the literature as an Optimum Currency Area. An Optimum Currency Area theory was for the first clip developed by Robert Mundell, in â€Å" A Theory of Optimum Currency Areas † ( September, 1961 ) . The chief thought was to specify until what extent some states ( EZ states, for case ) should give up from their independent pecuniary policy, in order to derive from micro and macroeconomics benefits of a shared currency. These benefits can be briefly referred as â€Å" decreased dealing costs, riddance of currency hazard, greater transparence and perchance greater competition because monetary values are easier to compare †[ 1 ]. Still, the chief issue is a pure inequation which tries to mensurate if the positive side of a common currency in EU is higher than the negative 1. In this reappraisal I will non concentrate merely in a remarkable parametric quantity of this equation because so it would connote a loss of the nucleus significance of the different beginnings. I will alternatively analyse the overall sentiment of different beginnings and refer to specific standards when it seems plausible.2. Critically annotated literature huntBeginning 1: Francesco Paolo Mongelli, Senior Advisor for Monetary Policy, European Central Bank ( ECB ) , â€Å" † New † positions on the optimal currency country theory: What is EMU stating us? â€Å" , Working Paper No. 138, April 2002 Francesco Mongelli has followed the euro advancement over the old ages and he strongly contributed to different analysis published under ECB cast. In his reappraisal he does non clearly take a place about the euro country. However, he seems to be more positive about the conditions of Europe for a common currency. Particularly after the euro acceptance, he states that â€Å" the members of the European Union that have removed all trade and fiscal barriers among each other and portion a individual market † due to the common currency enjoyed a steady addition in â€Å" mutual trade † which allows them to see stable growing. He does non disregard the alleged â€Å" † Krugman specialization hypothesis † † , which implies that the acceptance of euro will take member states to fall in an utmost specialised degree, taking to farther deficiency of variegation and it will go forth these states would be worse off. However, he clearly emphasizes that this is â€Å" a paradox as this is non what is observed in world † ( mentioning to Frankel, 1999 ) . With this debate Mongelli puts the euro country in the same side of the US States in the OCA graph sing two chief issues which for him are decisive ( see Graph 1 ) . This means, even though non every bit much as US States, the EZ states â€Å" draw net benefits from ( aˆÂ ¦ ) the euro † When confronting the critics from the general literature to the optimum conditions for a common currency in EU, Mongelli supports the other side of the literature stating these reappraisals might be biased since â€Å" they are chiefly rearward looking † . As he states: â€Å" Some writers believe alternatively that the OCA trial could be satisfied antique station even if it is non to the full satisfied ex ante † . In amount, this ECB adviser seems to back up the thought that â€Å" for the group of states now organizing the euro country this has brought considerable benefits but has besides required a long period, although some states that joined the procedure subsequently than the others caught up really quickly with the remainder. † This led him to believe the euro country might be suited for a common currency because, even though there are some structural differences among states, they can be managed overtime and optimum conditions can be achieved. Further analyses besides reported by Francesco Mongelli[ 2 ]on the Eve of the planetary fiscal crisis refer that in the last old ages at that place was a clear betterment of the euro country members or even its campaigners. He points out as chief betterment signals: â€Å" no ever-rising rising prices derived functions and inflationary outlooks † , â€Å" alterations in fight within the euro country are happening at a sustained gait † , and that â€Å" the hazard of pro-cyclicality of financial policies is under control † . Once once more, he stills believe that â€Å" all in all the balance seems positive: the benefits outweigh the costs † . Still, his chief point continues to be based on future outlooks and non truly on discernible facts. Beginning 2: Paul Krugman, â€Å" Retaliation of the Optimum Currency Area † , The New York Times, June 24, 2012 Many tried to analyse if dazes were symmetric or asymmetric in the interim of euro currency execution, although there is likely another ground which led to dazes ‘ dissymmetry. Despite the fact that European states could be already in an asymmetric place when following the euro, Krugman emphasizes that this dissymmetry tends to increase over the old ages among EZ states. He argues that most of the political power around EZ â€Å" chose to believe that asymmetric dazes would be a comparatively minor job † . Therefore Krugman identified another daze which is every bit of import as the others that existed earlier. This daze was, â€Å" in a acrimonious sarcasm, caused by the creative activity of the euro itself. † â€Å" In kernel, the creative activity of the euro led to a perceptual experience on the portion of many investors that the large hazards associated with cross-border investing within Europe had been eliminated. In the 1990s, despite the absence of formal capital controls, capital motions and therefore current-account instabilities within Europe were limited. After the creative activity of the euro, nevertheless, there was monolithic capital motion from Europe ‘s nucleus – chiefly Germany, but besides the Netherlands – to its fringe, taking to an economic roar in the fringe and significantly higher rising prices rates in Spain, Greece, etc. than in Germany. † In Krugman ‘s sentiment this deficiency of loads among euro country states led to the creative activity of more asymmetric dazes which states were non able to pull off. Especially states in the fringe, since they abdicated from their independent pecuniary policy, they could non utilize unfastened market operations to cover with such jobs like higher rising prices. Even though those states could do force per unit area on taking establishments in order to accommodate their policy to those state of affairss, they would confront opposition by â€Å" EuropeA?s nucleus † states. Therefore, this force per unit area would non be turned into any positive result for the fringe. Beginning 3: Martin Feldstein, Professor of Economics, Harvard University, â€Å" Optimum Currency Areas † , Cambridge, MA, 2008 Surely we can non avoid the economic differences among European states, although we might non merely concentrate on economic issues. Feldstein credited portion of the euro related jobs to political issues, alternatively of simply economic jobs such as daze dissymmetries. Feldstein has a broad background as academic and political associate in US, this allows him to hold an external position of the euro state of affairs and the single force per unit areas exercised by single states. The political result identified by Martin Feldstein, as described below, could be straight related with the dazes created by euro execution program as argued by Krugman ( see Source 2 ) . â€Å" Not all EMU states will be affected every bit by the development of the European economic system or by the policies of the ECB. ( aˆÂ ¦ ) Because of a limited willingness to do forfeits for the benefit of other EMU states or for the EMU as a system, some of those authoritiess or politicians may seek to go out the EMU or may endanger that they will make so unless policies are changed. † This position shows another attack on the OCA issue which might be against the thought that there are optimal conditions in the EU for a common currency, nevertheless non for the most frequent grounds referred in the literature. We can state that Martin Feldstein is chiefly presenting a political dimension into treatment, which sometimes can be the most decisive 1. Beginning 4: Huseyin Mualla Yuceol, â€Å" Why European Union is non an optimum currency country: The bounds of integrating † , Ege Academic Review, Mersin University, 2006 Besides mentioning many of the points that are mentioned in the literature back uping Krugman ‘s position ( see Source 2 ) , in which, he is chiefly placing that â€Å" there is a widespread incredulity environing the long-term practicality of the EMU. † This well-known Turkish faculty member besides refers another of import issue related with the OCA argument that sometimes is forgotten. Harmonizing to him, even though the European Commission was cognizant of macroeconomic disagreements, there was a clear deficiency of enforcement in order to cut down these existent dissymmetries. â€Å" Therefore, the so called EMU â€Å" convergence standards † are more concerned with analyzing ephemeral cyclical motions in fiscal indexs, instead than concentrating upon cardinal convergence in existent economic system. However, analyzing the extent to which EU member provinces have really met the MCC since 1990s, a period including both a recession and roar, makes dissatisfactory reading for protagonists of European pecuniary integrating. † The grounds shows that the deficiency of enforcement of the â€Å" convergence standards † led to an unsustainable macroeconomic state of affairs in the EZ. This unsustainable state of affairs implies that the EZ is non an optimum currency country and it besides means it is more hard to accomplish these conditions. â€Å" This is because, the accomplishment of convergence depends on peculiarly certain institutional and structural characteristics and the grade of development of market mechanisms. † Yuceol besides refers that there are likely two different groups among euro country states. One that would most likely tantrum in a common currency and the fringe which will confront strong barriers to maintain at the same gait without the pecuniary tools lost for the pecuniary brotherhood. â€Å" Therefore, EMU will split Europe because no mechanism exists for accomplishing existent convergence between national economic systems. †3. Tentative decisionsFrom the parts of the literature referred in this reappraisal it is easy to understand that both places in favour or against the OCA conditions in the euro zone can be argued. It is of import to underscore that most of the surveies on this affair are really concentrating in the same vectors, as mentioned before. However, they come up with rather different consequences. It is non straightforward which side is deducing misdirecting decisions. We can chiefly place two different political orientations: the one shared by the European Commission and other European establishments ( e.g. : ECB ) and the resistance which is chiefly referred in the literature as the Krugman ‘s position. From reading the different beginnings we can briefly province that the EC defends that higher integrating among states would increase the chance of the OCA standards being satisfied, while the other position provinces that higher integrating would take to a over specialisation job which would go a negative daze itself. Therefore, my probationary decision would be that the statements against the optimum conditions for a common currency in the euro zone are stronger than the others. The chief ground to indicate this out would be that most portion of the statements in favour of OCA conditions in EZ are based in frontward looking outlooks. Therefore I should hold that one of the chief jobs with the euro country was that it was established under future outlooks. This premise led states, like the 1s from the fringe, to be integrated in the EMU and they really did non hold conditions to make so. The demands established by the theory, such as the symmetricalness of dazes, labour market flexibleness and so on, are right so. I would state the misleading job was non a theoretical job. It was alternatively an out of clip phasing-in procedure carried out by the EMU which is non over yet.4. AnnexsGraph 1 – Two Key Optimum Currency Area Properties Beginning: Francesco Paolo Mongelli, † † New † positions on the optimal currency country theory: What is EMU stating us? â€Å" , European Central Bank ( ECB ) , Working Paper No. 138, April 2002